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One of the most useful tools in nonstandard analysis is the concept of a hyperfinite set. To understand a hyperfinite set, begin with an arbitrary infinite set X whose ...

A public-key cryptography algorithm which uses prime factorization as the trapdoor one-way function. Define n=pq (1) for p and q primes. Also define a private key d and a ...

Given a general quadrilateral with sides of lengths a, b, c, and d, the area is given by K = 1/4sqrt(4p^2q^2-(b^2+d^2-a^2-c^2)^2) (1) = (2) (Coolidge 1939; Ivanov 1960; Beyer ...

The trace of an n×n square matrix A is defined to be Tr(A)=sum_(i=1)^na_(ii), (1) i.e., the sum of the diagonal elements. The matrix trace is implemented in the Wolfram ...

A n×n matrix A is an orthogonal matrix if AA^(T)=I, (1) where A^(T) is the transpose of A and I is the identity matrix. In particular, an orthogonal matrix is always ...

A projection matrix P is an n×n square matrix that gives a vector space projection from R^n to a subspace W. The columns of P are the projections of the standard basis ...

For operators A^~ and B^~, the anticommutator is defined by {A^~,B^~}=A^~B^~+B^~A^~.

A convolution is an integral that expresses the amount of overlap of one function g as it is shifted over another function f. It therefore "blends" one function with another. ...

A square matrix U is a unitary matrix if U^(H)=U^(-1), (1) where U^(H) denotes the conjugate transpose and U^(-1) is the matrix inverse. For example, A=[2^(-1/2) 2^(-1/2) 0; ...

In general, there are two important types of curvature: extrinsic curvature and intrinsic curvature. The extrinsic curvature of curves in two- and three-space was the first ...