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A New Kind of Science is a seminal work on simple programs by Stephen Wolfram. In 1980, Wolfram's studies found unexpected behavior in a collection of simple computer ...

An error which is superimposed on top of a true signal. Noise may be random or systematic. Noise can be greatly reduced by transmitting signals digitally instead of in analog ...

Noncommutative topology is a recent program having important and deep applications in several branches of mathematics and mathematical physics. Because every commutative ...

Partial derivatives are defined as derivatives of a function of multiple variables when all but the variable of interest are held fixed during the differentiation. (1) The ...

The Pauli matrices, also called the Pauli spin matrices, are complex matrices that arise in Pauli's treatment of spin in quantum mechanics. They are defined by sigma_1 = ...

The field of all rational and irrational numbers is called the real numbers, or simply the "reals," and denoted R. The set of real numbers is also called the continuum, ...

The Riemann theta function is a complex function of g complex variables that occurs in the construction of quasi-periodic solutions of various equations in mathematical ...

A formula which transforms a given coordinate system by rotating it through a counterclockwise angle Phi about an axis n^^. Referring to the above figure (Goldstein 1980), ...

The ruliad may be defined as the entangled limit of everything that is computationally possible, i.e., the result of following all possible computational rules in all ...

Let X be a set of urelements, and let V(X) be the superstructure with X as its set of individuals. Let kappa be a cardinal number. An enlargement V(^*X) is kappa-saturated ...