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The natural logarithm of 2 is a transcendental quantity that arises often in decay problems, especially when half-lives are being converted to decay constants. ln2 has ...

Operations research is a vast branch of mathematics which encompasses many diverse areas of minimization and optimization. Thousands of books have been written worldwide on ...

An orthogonal coordinate system is a system of curvilinear coordinates in which each family of surfaces intersects the others at right angles. Orthogonal coordinates ...

Orthogonal polynomials are classes of polynomials {p_n(x)} defined over a range [a,b] that obey an orthogonality relation int_a^bw(x)p_m(x)p_n(x)dx=delta_(mn)c_n, (1) where ...

A pairing function is a function that reversibly maps Z^*×Z^* onto Z^*, where Z^*={0,1,2,...} denotes nonnegative integers. Pairing functions arise naturally in the ...

A palindromic number is a number (in some base b) that is the same when written forwards or backwards, i.e., of the form a_1a_2...a_2a_1. The first few palindromic numbers ...

The n-pan graph is the graph obtained by joining a cycle graph C_n to a singleton graph K_1 with a bridge. The n-pan graph is therefore isomorphic with the (n,1)-tadpole ...

A partial differential equation (PDE) is an equation involving functions and their partial derivatives; for example, the wave equation ...

A game played on a board of a given shape consisting of a number of holes of which all but one are initially filled with pegs. The goal is to remove all pegs but one by ...

The Penrose tiles are a pair of shapes that tile the plane only aperiodically (when the markings are constrained to match at borders). These two tiles, illustrated above, are ...