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The permanent is an analog of a determinant where all the signs in the expansion by minors are taken as positive. The permanent of a matrix A is the coefficient of x_1...x_n ...

An involution of a set S is a permutation of S which does not contain any permutation cycles of length >2 (i.e., it consists exclusively of fixed points and transpositions). ...

Plouffe's constants are numbers arising in summations of series related to r_n=f(2^n) where f is a trigonometric function. Define the Iverson bracket function rho(x)={1 for ...

Let p(d) be the probability that a random walk on a d-D lattice returns to the origin. In 1921, Pólya proved that p(1)=p(2)=1, (1) but p(d)<1 (2) for d>2. Watson (1939), ...

Circumscribe a triangle about a circle, another circle around the triangle, a square outside the circle, another circle outside the square, and so on. The circumradius and ...

Define a valid "coloring" to occur when no two faces with a common edge share the same color. Given two colors, there is a single way to color an octahedron (Ball and Coxeter ...

The Pratt certificate is a primality certificate based on Fermat's little theorem converse. Prior to the work of Pratt (1975), the Lucas-Lehmer test had been regarded purely ...

A primitive polynomial is a polynomial that generates all elements of an extension field from a base field. Primitive polynomials are also irreducible polynomials. For any ...

A projective module generalizes the concept of the free module. A module M over a nonzero unit ring R is projective iff it is a direct summand of a free module, i.e., of some ...

The set R union {infty}, obtained by adjoining one improper element to the set R of real numbers, is the set of projectively extended real numbers. Although notation is not ...