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Triangle


A triangle is a 3-sided polygon sometimes (but not very commonly) called the trigon. Every triangle has three sides and three angles, some of which may be the same. The sides of a triangle are given special names in the case of a right triangle, with the side opposite the right angle being termed the hypotenuse and the other two sides being known as the legs. All triangles are convex and bicentric. That portion of the plane enclosed by the triangle is called the triangle interior, while the remainder is the exterior.

The study of triangles is sometimes known as triangle geometry, and is a rich area of geometry filled with beautiful results and unexpected connections. In 1816, while studying the Brocard points of a triangle, Crelle exclaimed, "It is indeed wonderful that so simple a figure as the triangle is so inexhaustible in properties. How many as yet unknown properties of other figures may there not be?" (Wells 1991, p. 21).

Triangle

It is common to label the vertices of a triangle in counterclockwise order as either A, B, C (or A_1, A_2, A_3). The vertex angles are then given the same symbols as the vertices themselves. The symbols alpha, beta, gamma (or alpha_1, alpha_2, alpha_3) are also sometimes used (e.g., Johnson 1929), but this convention results in unnecessary confusion with the common notation for trilinear coordinates alpha:beta:gamma, and so is not recommended. The sides opposite the angles A, B, and C (or A_1, A_2, A_3) are then labeled a, b, c (or a_1, a_2, a_3), with these symbols also indicating the lengths of the sides (just as the symbols at the vertices indicate the vertices themselves as well as the vertex angles, depending on context).

Triangles

An triangle is said to be acute if all three of its angles are all acute, a triangle having an obtuse angle is called an obtuse triangle, and a triangle with a right angle is called right. A triangle with all sides equal is called equilateral, a triangle with two sides equal is called isosceles, and a triangle with all sides a different length is called scalene. A triangle can be simultaneously right and isosceles, in which case it is known as an isosceles right triangle.

The semiperimeter s of a triangle is defined as half its perimeter,

s=1/2p
(1)
=1/2(a+b+c).
(2)

The area of a triangle can given by Heron's formula

 Delta=sqrt(s(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)).
(3)

There are also many other formulas for the triangle area.

The definition of the semiperimeter leads to the definitions

s_a=1/2(b+c-a)
(4)
=s-a
(5)
=rcot(1/2A)
(6)
s_b=1/2(c+a-b)
(7)
=s-b
(8)
=rcot(1/2B)
(9)
s_c=1/2(a+b-c)
(10)
=s-c
(11)
=rcot(1/2C),
(12)

where r is the inradius. A similar set of relations hold for Conway triangle notation S, S_A, S_B, and S_C.

TriangleAngles

The sum of angles in a triangle is 180 degrees=pi radians (at least in Euclidean geometry; this statement does not hold in non-Euclidean geometry). This can be established as follows. Let DAE∥BC (DAE be parallel to BC) in the above diagram, then the angles alpha and beta satisfy alpha=∠DAB=∠ABC and beta=∠EAC=∠ACB, as indicated. Adding gamma, it follows that

 alpha+beta+gamma=180 degrees,
(13)

since the sum of angles for the line segment must equal two right angles. Therefore, the sum of angles in the triangle is also 180 degrees.

TriangleParallelLine

If a line is drawn parallel to one side of a triangle so that it intersects the other two sides, it divides them proportionally, i.e.,

 (AX)/(XC)=(BY)/(YC)
(14)

(Jurgensen 1963, p. 251). In other words, a line parallel to a side of a triangle cutting the other two sides creates a triangle similar to the first.

Allowable side lengths a, b, and c for a triangle are given by the set of inequalities a>0, b>0, c>0, and a+b>c, b+c>a, a+c>b, a statement that encapsulated in the so-called triangle inequality. The angles and sides of a triangle also satisfy an array of other beautiful triangle inequalities.

Specifying two angles A and B and a side a uniquely determines a triangle with area

Delta=(a^2sinBsinC)/(2sinA)
(15)
=(a^2sinBsin(pi-A-B))/(2sinA)
(16)

(the AAS theorem). Specifying an angle A, a side c, and an angle B uniquely specifies a triangle with area

 Delta=(c^2)/(2(cotA+cotB))
(17)

(the ASA theorem). Given a triangle with two sides, a the smaller and c the larger, and one known angle A, acute and opposite a, if sinA<a/c, there are two possible triangles. If sinA=a/c, there is one possible triangle. If sinA>a/c, there are no possible triangles. This is the ASS theorem. Let a be the base length and h be the height. Then

Delta=1/2ah
(18)
=1/2acsinB
(19)

(the SAS theorem). Finally, if all three sides are specified, a unique triangle is determined with area given by Heron's formula or by

 Delta=(abc)/(4R),
(20)

where R is the circumradius. This is the SSS theorem.

TrilinearCoordinates

In triangle geometry, it is frequently very convenient to use a triple of coordinates defined relative to the distances from each side of a given so-called reference triangle. One form of such coordinates is known as trilinear coordinates alpha:beta:gamma, with all coordinates having the same sign corresponding to the triangle interior, one coordinate zero corresponding to a point on a side, two coordinates zero corresponding to a vertex, and coordinates having different signs corresponding to the triangle exterior.

TriangleConstruction

The straightedge and compass construction of the triangle can be accomplished as follows. In the above figure, take OP_0 as a radius and draw OB_|_OP_0. Then bisect OB and construct P_2P_1∥OP_0. Extending BO to locate P_3 then gives the equilateral triangle DeltaP_1P_2P_3. Another construction proceeds by drawing a circle of the desired radius r centered at a point O. Choose a point B on the circle's circumference and draw another circle of radius r centered at B. The two circles intersect at two points, P_1 and P_2, and P_3 is the second point at which the line B_O intersects the first circle.

IncircleCircumcircle

In Proposition IV.4 of the Elements, Euclid showed how to inscribe a circle (the incircle) in a given triangle by locating the incenter I as the point of intersection of angle bisectors. In Proposition IV.5, he showed how to circumscribe a circle (the circumcircle) about a given triangle by locating the circumcenter O as the point of intersection of the perpendicular bisectors. Unlike a general polygon with n>=4 sides, a triangle always has both a circumcircle and an incircle. such polygons are called bicentric polygons.

A triangle with sides a, b, and c can be constructed by selecting vertices (0, 0), (c,0), and (x,y), then solving

x^2+y^2=b^2
(21)
(x-c)^2+y^2=a^2
(22)

simultaneously to obtain

x=(-a^2+b^2+c^2)/(2c)
(23)
=bcosA
(24)
y=+/-(sqrt((-a+b+c)(a-b+c)(a+b-c)(a+b+c)))/(2c)
(25)
=+/-(2Delta)/c.
(26)

The angles of a triangle satisfy the law of cosines

 cosA=(b^2+c^2-a^2)/(2bc),
(27)

as well as

 cotA=(b^2+c^2-a^2)/(4Delta)
(28)

where Delta is the area (Johnson 1929, p. 11, with missing squared symbol added). The latter gives the pretty identity

 cotA+cotB+cotC=(a^2+b^2+c^2)/(4Delta).
(29)

In addition,

 tanA+tanB+tanC=tanAtanBtanC
(30)

(F.J. n.d., p. 206; Borchardt and Perrott 1930) and

 cotBcotC+cotCcotA+cotAcotB=1
(31)
 tanAcotBcotC+tanBcotCcotA+tanCcotAcotB 
 =tanA+tanB+tanC+2(cotA+cotB+cotC)
(32)

(Siddons and Hughes 1929), and

 cot(1/2A)+cot(1/2B)+cot(1/2C) 
 =cot(1/2A)cot(1/2B)cot(1/2C).
(33)

Additional formulas include

 cos^2A+cos^2B+cos^2C+2cosAcosBcosC=1,
(34)

and

cos(nA)=cos[n(B+C)]
(35)
cos(nB)=cos[n(A+C)]
(36)
cos(nC)=cos[n(A+B)]
(37)

for even n (Weisstein, Jan. 31, 2003 and Mar. 3, 2004).

Trigonometric functions of half angles in a triangle can be expressed in terms of the triangle sides as

cos(1/2A)=sqrt((s(s-a))/(bc))
(38)
sin(1/2A)=sqrt(((s-b)(s-c))/(bc))
(39)
tan(1/2A)=sqrt(((s-b)(s-c))/(s(s-a))),
(40)

where s is the semiperimeter.

Let S stand for a triangle side and A for an angle, and let a set of Ss and As be concatenated such that adjacent letters correspond to adjacent sides and angles in a triangle. Triangles are uniquely determined by specifying three sides (SSS theorem), two angles and a side (AAS theorem), or two sides with an adjacent angle (SAS theorem). In each of these cases, the unknown three quantities (there are three sides and three angles total) can be uniquely determined. Other combinations of sides and angles do not uniquely determine a triangle: three angles specify a triangle only modulo a scale size (AAA theorem), and one angle and two sides not containing it may specify one, two, or no triangles (ASS theorem).

SideParallels

Dividing the sides of a triangle in a constant ratio r<1/2 and then drawing lines parallel to the adjacent sides passing through each of these points gives line segments which intersect each other and one of the medians in three places. If r>1/2, then the extensions of the side parallels intersect the extensions of the medians.

The medians bisect the area of a triangle, as do the side parallels with ratio 1+sqrt(2). The envelope of the lines which bisect the area a triangle forms three hyperbolic arcs. The envelope is somewhat more complicated, however, for lines dividing the area of a triangle into a constant but unequal ratio (Dunn and Petty 1972, Ball 1980, Wells 1991).

There are four circles which are tangent to the sides of a triangle, one internal (the incircle) and the rest external (the excircles). Their centers are the points of intersection of the angle bisectors of the triangle.

Any triangle can be positioned such that its shadow under an orthogonal projection is equilateral.


See also

Acute Triangle, Equilateral Triangle, Isosceles Triangle, Obtuse Triangle, Pentagon, Polygon, Right Triangle, Scalene Triangle, Square, Square Triangle Picking, Triangle Area, Triangle Geometry, Triangle Triangle Picking, Trilinear Coordinates Explore this topic in the MathWorld classroom

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References

Baker, M. "A Collection of Formulæ for the Area of a Plane Triangle." Ann. Math. 1, 134-138, 1884.Ball, D. "Halving Envelopes." Math. Gaz. 64, 166-172, 1980.Berkhan, G. and Meyer, W. F. "Neuere Dreiecksgeometrie." In Encyklopädie der Mathematischen Wissenschaften, Vol. 3AB 10 (Ed. F. Klein). Leipzig: Teubner, pp. 1173-1276, 1914.Beyer, W. H. (Ed.). CRC Standard Mathematical Tables, 28th ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, pp. 123-124, 1987.Borchardt, W. G. and Perrott, A. D. §133 in A New Trigonometry for Schools. London: G. Bell, 1930.Casey, J. A Sequel to the First Six Books of the Elements of Euclid, Containing an Easy Introduction to Modern Geometry with Numerous Examples, 5th ed., rev. enl. Dublin: Hodges, Figgis, & Co., 1888.Coxeter, H. S. M. Introduction to Geometry, 2nd ed. New York: Wiley, 1969.Davis, P. "The Rise, Fall, and Possible Transfiguration of Triangle Geometry: A Mini-History." Amer. Math. Monthly 102, 204-214, 1995.Dunn, J. A. and Petty, J. E. "Halving a Triangle." Math. Gaz. 56, 105-108, 1972.Durell, C. V. "Properties of the Triangle." Ch. 3 in Modern Geometry: The Straight Line and Circle. London: Macmillan, pp. 19-31, 1928.Eppstein, D. "Triangles and Simplices." http://www.ics.uci.edu/~eppstein/junkyard/triangulation.html.Feuerbach, K. W. Eigenschaften einiger merkwürdigen Punkte des geradlinigen Dreiecks, und mehrerer durch die bestimmten Linien und Figuren. Nürnberg, Germany: Riegel und Wiesner, 1822.F. J. Elements de trigonometrie rectiligne. Paris: J. de Gigord, n.d.Fukagawa, H. and Pedoe, D. "One or Two Circles and Triangles," "Three Circles and Triangles," "Four Circles and Triangle," "Five Circles and Triangles," "Many Circles and Triangles," "Triangles." §2.2-2.6 and 4.1 in Japanese Temple Geometry Problems. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada: Charles Babbage Research Foundation, pp. 26-37, 46-47, 102-116, 129-130, 1989.Honsberger, R. "On Triangles." Ch. 3 in Episodes in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Euclidean Geometry. Washington, DC: Math. Assoc. Amer., pp. 27-33, 1995.Johnson, R. A. Modern Geometry: An Elementary Treatise on the Geometry of the Triangle and the Circle. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1929.Jurgensen, R. C.; Donnelly, A. J.; and Dolciani, M. P. Th. 42 in Modern Geometry: Structure and Method. Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin, 1963.Kimberling, C. "Central Points and Central Lines in the Plane of a Triangle." Math. Mag. 67, 163-187, 1994.Kimberling, C. "Triangle Centers and Central Triangles." Congr. Numer. 129, 1-295, 1998.Lachlan, R. "Properties of Triangles." Ch. 6 in An Elementary Treatise on Modern Pure Geometry. London: Macmillian, pp. 51-81, 1893.Le Lionnais, F. Les nombres remarquables. Paris: Hermann, p. 28, 1983.Schröder, R. Das Dreieck und seine Beruhungskreise: Ein Übungsgebiet aus der rechnenden Geometrie, I. Teil. Gross-Lichterfelde, Germany: Oberrealschule Gross-Lichterfelde, 1909.Schröder, R. Das Dreieck und seine Beruhungskreise: Ein Übungsgebiet aus der rechnenden Geometrie, II. Teil. Gross-Lichterfelde, Germany: Oberrealschule Gross-Lichterfelde, 1910.Siddons, A. W. and Hughes, R. T. Trigonometry, Part I. London: Cambridge University Press, 1929a.Siddons, A. W. and Hughes, R. T. Trigonometry, Part II. London: Cambridge University Press, 1929b.Siddons, A. W. and Hughes, R. T. Trigonometry, Part III. London: Cambridge University Press, 1929c.Siddons, A. W. and Hughes, R. T. Trigonometry, Part IV. London: Cambridge University Press, 1929d.Vandeghen, A. "Some Remarks on the Isogonal and Cevian Transforms. Alignments of Remarkable Points of a Triangle." Amer. Math. Monthly 72, 1091-1094, 1965.Wells, D. The Penguin Dictionary of Curious and Interesting Geometry. London: Penguin, p. 21, 1991.

Cite this as:

Weisstein, Eric W. "Triangle." From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource. https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Triangle.html

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